The Democratic Annexation of Texas, 1845

Texans voted in favor of annexation to the United States in the first election following independence in 1836. However, throughout the Republic period (1836-1845) no treaty of annexation negotiated between the Republic and the United States was ratified by both nations. When all attempts to arrive at a formal annexation treaty failed, the United States Congress passed--after much debate and only a simple majority--a Joint Resolution for Annexing Texas to the United States. Under these terms, Texas would keep both its public lands and its public debt, it would have the power to divide into four additional states "of convenient size" in the future if it so desired, and it would deliver all military, postal, and customs facilities and authority to the United States government. (Neither this joint resolution or the ordinance passed by the Republic of Texas' Annexation Convention gave Texas the right to secede.)

In July 1845, a popularly-elected Constitutional Convention met in Austin to consider both this annexation proposal as well as a proposed peace treaty with Mexico which would end the state of war between the two nations, but only if Texas remained an independent country. The Convention voted to accept the United States' proposal, and the Annexation Ordinance was submitted to a popular vote in October 1845. The proposed Annexation Ordinance and State Constitution were approved by the Texas voters and submitted to the United States Congress. The United States House and Senate, in turn, accepted the Texas state constitution in a Joint Resolution to Admit Texas as a State which was signed by the president on December 29, 1845. Although the formal transfer of government did not occur until February 19, 1846, Texas statehood dates from the 29th of December.  Opposition to Texas' admission to the United States was particularly strong in the North during this period. If a challenge to the constitutionality of the move could have been made successfully at that time, there is little doubt that the leaders of the opposition would have instituted such a suit in the Supreme Court.

 

Source: Texas State Library & Archives Commission

Narrative: Jean Carefoot,  April 1997

http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/annexation/timeline.html

http://www.tsl.state.tx.us/ref/abouttx/annexation/index.html

The Forceful Annexation of Hawaii, 1898

America's annexation of Hawaii in 1898 extended U.S. territory into the Pacific and highlighted resulted from economic integration and the rise of the United States as a Pacific power. For most of the 1800s, leaders in Washington were concerned that Hawaii might become part of a European nation's empire. During the 1830s, Britain and France forced Hawaii to accept treaties giving them economic privileges. In 1842, Secretary of State Daniel Webster sent a letter to Hawaiian agents in Washington affirming U.S. interests in Hawaii and opposing annexation by any other nation. He also proposed to Great Britain and France that no nation should seek special privileges or engage in further colonization of the islands. In 1849, the United States and Hawaii concluded a treaty of friendship that served as the basis of official relations between the parties.

A key provisioning spot for American whaling ships, fertile ground for American protestant missionaries, and a new source of sugar cane production, Hawaii's economy became increasingly integrated with the United States. An 1875 trade reciprocity treaty further linked the two countries and U.S. sugar plantation owners from the United States came to dominate the economy and politics of the islands. When Queen Liliuokalani moved to establish a stronger monarchy, Americans under the leadership of Samuel Dole deposed her in 1893. The planters' belief that a coup and annexation by the United States would remove the threat of a devastating tariff on their sugar also spurred them to action. The administration of President Benjamin Harrison encouraged the takeover, and dispatched sailors from the USS Boston to the islands to surround the royal palace. The U.S. minister to Hawaii, John L. Stevens, worked closely with the new government.

Dole sent a delegation to Washington in 1894 seeking annexation, but the new President, Grover Cleveland, opposed annexation and tried to restore the Queen. Dole declared Hawaii an independent republic. Spurred by the nationalism aroused by the Spanish-American War, the United States annexed Hawaii in 1898 at the urging of President William McKinley. Hawaii was made a territory in 1900, and Dole became its first governor. Racial attitudes and party politics in the United States deferred statehood until a bipartisan compromise linked Hawaii's status to Alaska, and both became states in 1959.

Source: U.S. Department of State

http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm

The Diplomatic Annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1908.

Article 25 of the 1878 Treaty of Berlin gave Austria-Hungary the right to "occupy and administer" Bosnia-Herzegovina. At the time there was a widespread expectation that within a few years the Provinces would be formally annexed to the Dual Monarchy. A variety of circumstances, connected with both the foreign and internal affairs of Austria-Hungary, prevented any serious effort to convert occupation and administration into annexation. As time passed objections of the domestic order ceased to be as pronounced as in the years soon after 1878. Under the leadership of Count Aehrenthal, Minister of Foreign Affairs, the Government of the Dual Monarchy found in the Turkish revolution of 1908, a convenient, opportunity for annexation.

The Government of the Dual Monarchy alleged that the Turkish Revolution in 1908 made it necessary for Austria-Hungary to define her position in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The constitutional reforms announced by the Young Turks required that Turkey grant a degree of autonomy to the provinces and representation in the Turkish Parliament. This made it necessary, in the interest of the welfare of the provinces, that Austria-Hungary should no longer leave their status ill defined. Vienna was probably determined on an early annexation after the revolt broke out in Turkey in July. Though Isvolsky, Russian minister of foreign affairs, was told that the act would take place "au moment favorable" and with ample warning, Russia was not notified until October 3, and the other powers were uninformed until October 6. The diplomacy of Aehrenthal, minister of foreign affairs of Austria-Hungary, was perplexingly intricate.

On October 6 a circular note to the powers announced the evacuation of the Sandjak of Novi Bazar, and the grant of constitutional autonomy to Bosnia-Herzegovina. On October 7 the Emperor-King announced to the inhabitants of the provinces his reasons for annexation. On October 8 the Porte protested to Vienna that the Treaty of Berlin and the convention of Constantinople could be altered only by the consent of the signatory parties. A Turkish boycott on Austrian goods caused such losses that on November 22 Pallavicini, ambassador of Austria-Hungary at Constantinople, promised concessions if the boycott was raised. Kiamil Pasha ordered it stopped on December 5. On January 11 Pallavicini offered the Porte £2,200,000 to compensate for Turkish property in the provinces, this payment, he asserted, having nothing to do with the annexation. This and other compensations were embodied in the protocol of February 26, by which Turkey recognized the annexation.

On October 7 Serbia. demanded complete restoration of the Treaty of Berlin or compensation. Montenegro demanded that Antivari be freed from Austrian control. Milovanovitch, minister of foreign affairs of Serbia, was urged by the powers to avoid hostilities and await in international conference. He replied that Serbia wished a recognition of Serbian and Montenegrin integrity, and the strip between the Sandjak and Bosnia-Herzegovina as a buffer between Austria and Turkey.

The attitude of the powers was as follows: The interests of England and France were not directly concerned. Russia was anxious to bring the matter before a congress of the concerned powers. Italy was bound by the Triple Alliance. Germany approved a fait accompli, but wished Austria to go no further. Aehrenthal would consent to a congress only with the proviso that the annexation should not be discussed, but should be simply ratified as a matter of legal form. A plan for the congress was drawn up, but Austria-Hungary pronounced it unacceptable.

The idea of a Congress was abandoned for two reasons: The attitude of Germany and the retreat of Russia, Serbia, and Montenegro. The Berlin Government, supporting Austria-Hungary, insisted that annexation be excluded from discussion, and that no compensation be given Serbia and Montenegro without Austria's consent. In the Reichstag, on December 7, Von Bülow said that Germany would stand by her ally. In March, 1909, he notified Russia that, if Russia intervened to and Serbia, in case of war Germany would support Austria. Russia at once recognized the annexation.  In February and March, 1909, Austria mobilized three army corps and the Danube flotilla, and demanded categorical renunciation of the Serbian claims. As Russia had withdrawn her support early in March, Serbia on March 31 renounced her opposition to annexation and promised to restore her army to the status of the spring of 1908. On April 6 Montenegro renounced her opposition in return for the suppression of article 29 of the Treat of Berlin, giving Austria control of Antivari. As the powers most nearly concerned agreed to the annexation, the remaining powers consented to the suppression of article 25 of the Treaty of Berlin. Italy consented April 11, Germany April 7, England April 17, Russia and France April 19.

The results of annexation for Austria were an indemnity of £2,200,000 to Turkey; trade losses by the Turkish boycott; £14,000,000 for the mobilization of the army; the alienation of most of the powers from Austrian policy; and a heavy obligation to Germany. The whole episode became the starting point and was in large measure the immediate cause for the series of events, all of them connected with the affairs of the Turkish Empire which filled the years 1908 to 1914 and led directly to the World War.

Source: Handbook for the Diplomatic History of Europe, Asia, and Africa 1870-1914

http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/boshtml/bos127.htm

 The Coerced Annexation of Korea, 1907-1910.

Russian expansion in East Asia and its threat to Japanese interests in Korea caused anxiety in Japan. While the West mounted increasing pressure on China to remove Russia from Manchuria, Japan and Russia negotiated over the future of Manchuria and Korea. Japan soon realized the inevitability of a war with Russia over Manchuria. In a futile attempt at self-preservation, Korea proclaimed itself neutral as the Japanese Imperial Fleet moved against the Russian navy at Port Arthur. Admiral Togo again gained quick mastery over the Yellow Sea. The Battle of Port Arthur opened the Russo-Japanese War.

While the Japanese Army rapidly advanced through Korea toward Manchuria, the Japanese government laid plans for the eventual annexation of the Korean peninsula. Japan pushed Russia out of Korea, captured Darien and Port Arthur and fought the Russians deep into Manchuria. Admiral Togo defeated Russia in the dramatic Battle of Tsushima Straits and secured Japan's status as a world class military power. Meanwhile, as King Kojong gave Japan a stronger economic hold over Korea, America and Great Britain bargained away Korea's freedom to protect themselves from the rising power of Japan.

The Portsmouth Peace Conference insured Japan's dominant position in Korea and East Asia. Unhindered by outside forces, Japan expanded and solidified its control over Korea. The Protectorate Treaty of 1905 gave Japan full authority over Korean foreign relations and placed the peninsula under the administration of the Japanese Residency-General. The West ignored Korean pleas for help against Japan. As Japan tightened its grip, Koreans resisted Japanese regulations and reforms. Korean exiles and numerous anti- Japanese guerilla groups formed to continue the struggle for independence.

Korea's Prime Minister collaborated in the annexation of Korea and signed the annexation agreement with Japan. The Japanese forced the abdication of the King, ended the Yi Dynasty, and took control of Korea under the new regime of a military Governor-General. Japanese efforts to subordinate Korea in thought, word and deed led to striking measures designed to forever erase Korea's heritage. Japanese merchants and industry began an expanded "economic" invasion of Korea. Thousands of Koreans joined anti-Japanese guerilla movements in northern Korea, southern Manchuria and the Russian Maritime Territory as Japan proceeded to exploit the Korean economy and its natural resources to support its continued economic growth.

(August 22, 1910)

The Proclamation

Notwithstanding the earnest and laborious work of reforms in the administration of Korea in which the Governments of Japan and Korea have been engaged for more than four years since the conclusion of the Agreement of 1905, the existing system of government in that country has not proved entirely equal to the duty of preserving public order and tranquillity; and in addition, the spirit of suspicion and misgiving dominates the whole peninsula.

In order to maintain peace and stability in Korea, to promote the prosperity and welfare of Koreans, and at the same time to ensure the safety and repose of foreign residents, it has been made abundantly clear that fundamental changes in the actual regime of government are absolutely essential. The Governments of Japan and Korea, being convinced of the urgent necessity of introducing reforms responsive to the requirements of the situation and of furnishing sufficient guarantee for the future, have, with the approval of His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, concluded, through their plenipotentiaries, a treaty providing for complete annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan. By virtue of that important act, which shall take effect on its promulgation on August 29, 1910, the Imperial Government of Japan shall undertake the entire government and administration of Korea, and they hereby declare that the matters relating to foreigners and foreign trade in Korea shall be conducted in accordance with the following rules:

 The Treaty

 His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, having in view the special and close relations between their respective countries, desiring to promote the common wealth of the two nations and to assure the permanent peace in the Far East, and being convinced that these objectives can be best attained by the annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan, have resolved to conclude a treaty of such annexation and have, for that purpose, appointed as their plenipotentiaries, that is to say, His Majesty the Emperor of Japan Viscount Terauchi Masatake, Resident-General, and His Majesty the Emperor of Korea Yi Wan-Yong, Prime Minister, who upon mutual conference and deliberation have agreed to the following articles:

Article 1. His Majesty the Emperor of Korea makes the complete and permanent cession to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan of all rights of sovereignty over the whole of Korea.

Article 2. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan accepts the cession mentioned in the preceding article and consents to the complete annexation of Korea to the Empire of Japan.

Article 3. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will accord to their Majesties the Emperor and ex-Emperor and His Imperial Highness the Crown Prince of Korea and their consorts and heirs such titles, dignity, and honor as are appropriate to their respective ranks, and sufficient annual grants will be made for the maintenance of such titles, dignity and honor.

Article 4. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will also accord appropriate honor and treatment to the members of the Imperial House of Korea and their heirs other than those mentioned in the preceding article, and the funds necessary for the maintenance of such honor and treatment will be granted.

Article 5. His Majesty the Emperor of Japan will confer peerage and monetary grants upon those Koreans who, on account of meritorious services, are regarded as deserving such special recognition. Article 6. In consequence of the aforesaid annexation the Government of Japan assume the entire government and administration of Korea, and undertake to afford full protection for the persons and property of Koreans obeying the laws there in force to promote the welfare of all such Koreans.

Article 7. The Government of Japan will, so far as circumstances permits, employ in the public service of Japan in Korea those Koreans who accept the new regime loyally and in good faith and who are duly qualified for such service.

Article 8. This treaty, having been approved by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan and His Majesty the Emperor of Korea, shall take effect from the state of its promulgation.

In faith thereof:

Resident General Viscount Terauchi Masatake

Prime Minister Yi, Wan-yong

Source: University of California Los Angeles

http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/kore1910.htm

 The Military Annexation of Austria, 1938.

Source: Wapedia

http://wapedia.mobi/en/Anschluss

Austria was annexed to the German Third Reich on 12 March 1938. There had been several years of pressure from Germany and there were many supporters within Austria for the "Heim ins Reich"-movement, both Nazis and non-Nazis. Earlier, Nazi Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party (Austrian Nazi Party) in its bid to seize power from Austria's Austrofascist leadership. Fully devoted to remaining independent but under considerable pressure from both German and Austrian Nazis, the Chancellor of Austria, Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to hold a referendum to ask the Austrian people whether they wished to remain independent or merge into Germany. Although Schuschnigg expected Austria to vote in favor of maintaining autonomy, a well-planned coup d'état by the Austrian Nazi Party of Austria's state institutions in Vienna took place on 11 March, prior to the referendum which was cancelled. With power quickly transferred over to Germany, Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss.

The Nazis held a plebiscite - asking the people to ratify what had already been done - within the following month, where they claim to have received 99.73% of the vote. Although the Allies were committed to upholding the terms of the treaties of Versailles and St. Germain, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany, their reaction was only verbal and moderate. No fighting ever took place and even the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France and the United Kingdom (the "Stresa Front"), were appeased.

The Anschluss was among the first major steps in Adolf Hitler's long-desired creation of an empire including German-speaking lands and territories Germany had lost after World War I, although Austria had never been a part of the (in 20th-century terms) German state.

Austria ceased to exist as a fully independent nation until late 1945. A Provisional Austrian Government was set up on 27 April 1945 and was legally recognized by the Allies in the following months, but it was not until 1955 that Austria regained full sovereignty.